The scientific and political legacy
Australians in Antarctica
Australia’s long history of involvement in Antarctica has its foundations in the 19th century. In its early years Australia depended on the sea for its trade and communications and was conscious of the vast unknown region that lay close to the south. Because of this proximity it was inevitable that Australia became closely involved in Antarctic exploration.
The sailing vessels upon which the colonies depended for their supplies and trade with Europe followed the Great Circle routes south of the Cape of Good Hope and sought the favourable westerly winds found well to the south. These voyages brought familiarity with the high latitudes, but were not without risk – in the second year of settlement HMS Guardian was almost lost after striking an iceberg.
From the first days of colonisation in 1788, Australia was closely associated with sealing and whaling industries. These industries rapidly assumed commercial importance but, as Australian waters became exhausted, the attention of sealers and whalers turned inevitably to the subantarctic islands. By 1820, just ten years after the discovery of Macquarie Island, the fur seal had been virtually exterminated and elephant seals were being slaughtered for their oil.
Over-exploitation around Australia also forced whalers to explore the southern waters. The Hobart barque Venus reached 72deg.S in search of whales in 1831. Its return to Australia with a cargo of sperm whale oil stimulated others to explore the far south. Elsewhere around Antarctica other voyages by English, American and Russian vessels were making significant discoveries. The geographic and scientific exploration of Antarctica was thus encouraged by the early commercial ventures.
Many explorers bound for the Antarctic, including John Biscoe, Charles Wilkes, Dumont d’Urville and James Clark Ross, visited Australia for supplies for their southern journeys. The use of Hobart as a port of call for most of these expeditions and its support for the southern sealing and whaling industries fostered Australian interest in Antarctica.
The scientific era begins
Despite the brief extension of harvesting activities to Heard Island, the middle of the 1800’s saw a decline in Antarctic whaling and sealing. The time had come to move from commercial exploitation to scientific exploration.
A Tasmanian scientific journal of 1842 saw the first promotion of Australian research in the Antarctic. However, the call was not taken up until after the highly successful Challenger expedition was concluded in 1876 and the studies of the International Polar Year completed in 1883. Australian scientific societies then became keen to develop research into Antarctica’s geological, meteorological and magnetic phenomena.
In 1886 the Australian Antarctic Exploration Committee was established by the Royal Society of Victoria to investigate, among other things, the establishment of research stations and the use of steam powered ships to penetrate areas inaccessible to sailing vessels. However, proposals put forward by the Committee to mount a purely scientific expedition did not bring immediate results.
A revival of interest in whaling towards the end of the nineteenth century prompted a Norwegian expedition to explore Antarctic waters south of Australia for new whaling grounds. The manager of the expedition was Norwegian H J Bull, of Melbourne, and signed on as expedition scientist was another Norwegian, C E Borchgrevink, who had been working in Australia as a teacher. In January 1895 they were in the party that made the first landing on continental Antarctica, at Cape Adare. During the brief visit ashore Borchgrevink made collections of rocks and lichens. No new whaling grounds were found, but when the Antarctic expedition arrived back in Australia the specimens were proof of the opportunities for research.
Borchgrevink proposed a return visit to the Antarctic with a scientific party that would, for the first time, stay for a winter on the continent. The expedition, mounted in England, sailed from Hobart in November 1898 aboard the Southern Cross and carried a research staff of seven. The first Australian to land on the Antarctic continent was the scientist of that party, the young Tasmanian physicist, Louis Charles Bernacchi. He concluded that although there were poor prospects for commercial advantage, "Antarctic exploration is of capital importance to science". This expedition became the first party to spend a winter on the Antarctic continent.
Over a short period around the turn of the century research expeditions were mounted by several countries. Australia took particular interest in Scott’s 1901–1904 expedition, on the Discovery, offering financial support and port facilities. Bernacchi returned to the Antarctic as Scott’s physicist.
Australia also played a major role in the success of Shackleton’s 1907–09 expedition. The Australian Government donated 5000 pounds (sterling) to the expedition, and Australians directly participating included geologist Professor Edgeworth David, who joined Shackleton as chief scientific officer; Bertram Armytage of Melbourne; Leo Cotton of Sydney; and Captain John King Davis, master of the expedition’s vessel, who would go on to play a major part in Australia’s exploration of Antarctica.
Australian Antarctic Territory defined
With a revival in the whaling industries and increasing international interest in the Antarctic, Mawson was keen to affirm Australia’s interest in Antarctica. He proposed a two-year research expedition working eastwards along the Antarctic coast south of Australia, from Enderby Land to the Ross Sea, surveying the coast with the use of aircraft. With support from three governments the British, Australian and New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition (BANZARE) was formed under Mawson’s command and set sail for the Antarctic in October 1929.
In two summer voyages Discovery and the expedition aircraft traversed the whole coastline from 45deg.E to 160deg.E and in the process defined the limits of what was to become Australian Antarctic Territory (AAT). Three new landings were made and aircraft flights discovered the BANZARE Coast and Princess Elizabeth Land. The expedition also generated scientific results that were so voluminous that reports were still being published three decades later.
To capitalise on the achievements of BANZARE, plans turned towards the establishment of permanent Antarctic stations which could support further exploratory work as well as conduct meteorological and other studies. Wilkins’ ship Wyatt Earp was purchased by the government to support these proposals, but progress in Australian exploration had to be deferred with the outbreak of the Second World War.
ANARE is created
Australian interest in Antarctica revived after the War. The immediate interest was in Antarctic meteorology and in 1947 a number of reconnaissance flights were conducted over the Southern Ocean but the principal aim was to establish permanent scientific stations on the Antarctic continent.
As a result of representations to the Government by Sir Douglas Mawson an inter-departmental committee recommended, in December 1946, that firm commitment be made to an Antarctic expedition. The government then moved quickly to approve the immediate establishment of meteorological and scientific research stations on Heard Island and Macquarie Island and the use of Wyatt Earp to reconnoitre a site for a permanent station on the Antarctic continent.
Raising the flag at Atlas Cove Heard Island on 26 December 1947. Photo: David Eastman. © Australian Antarctic Division
To coordinate preparations for the work an Executive Planning Committee was established in May 1947, with Sir Douglas Mawson as advisor. Group Captain Stuart Campbell, who had been in charge of BANZARE flying operations, was appointed chief executive officer of the expedition, which in August 1947 was given the formal title, Australian National Antarctic Research Expedition (ANARE). Dr Phillip Law, a physics lecturer from the University of Melbourne, was appointed to plan and organise the scientific program.
In the first season of ANARE, using the naval vessel LST 3501, stations were established on Heard Island, in December 1947, and at Macquarie Island, in March 1948. Meanwhile, under Karl Oom’s command,Wyatt Earp proceeded to the Antarctic to reconnoitre a site for a continental station. Although weather and ice conditions prevented the small ship from reaching the coast, the voyage achieved some of its scientific aims, notably in Law’s cosmic ray research. However, it was clear that Wyatt Earp was not suitable for the work planned for ANARE and another six years were to pass before Australia could secure a vessel adequate for the task.
Australian Antarctic Division established
Despite the setback in not achieving the continental part of the program the first expedition had proved a success and the government therefore resolved to put ANARE on a permanent footing. This was achieved with the decision in May 1948 to create the Antarctic Division of the Department of External Affairs to be a permanent agency to administer and coordinate ANARE. In January 1949 Phillip Law was appointed Director of the Antarctic Division and leader of ANARE – a position which he was to hold for the next 17 years.
The work on the subantarctic islands continued to develop with a wide range of scientific disciplines being studied. Law, however, wanted the ANARE effort extended to the continent, where the greatest scientific opportunities were to be found, and devoted considerable energy to seeking vessels that could safely support extended journeys into the Antarctic pack ice. His solution to the problem was to look to the Northern Hemisphere where ice strengthened vessels lay idle during the northern winter. In 1953 he found a ship that would prove ideal for his purpose of penetrating the Antarctic. His plans to establish a permanent station on the continent could be realised.
Mawson Station established
Kista Dan sailed from Melbourne in January 1954 for Heard Island and MacRobertson Land. A suitable site for a station was found on a rock outcrop surrounding a natural deep-water harbour. It was ideal. The site was one of the few rock exposures along the coast and offered excellent access to the interior of the continent.
Mawson station in 1956, two years after the station’s establishment. Photo: Phil Law. ©Australian Antarctic Division.
Over a period of twelve days prefabricated buildings, food, stores, scientific equipment and over-snow vehicles were landed and construction of the station was commenced. On 13 February 1954 Phillip Law opened Australia’s first permanent station in Antarctica, naming it in honour of Sir Douglas Mawson. After leaving Robert Dovers and the winter party to finish construction work, commence the scientific program and make a start on the inland exploration, the ship sailed east to explore Mackenzie Bay and the Vestfold Hills in Princess Elizabeth Land. This set the pattern for Law’s future work, where each voyage would support the permanent stations and then remain in the Antarctic conducting extensive surveys along the coast of the Australian Antarctic Territory.
Following the successful establishment of Mawson and the great gains made in inland survey work, further impetus to concentrate on the continent came from the decision to participate in the International Geophysical Year (IGY). This was to run from 1957 to 1958 and emphasised the unique scientific opportunities of Antarctica. Law’s plans to establish a second station in the Vestfold Hills, which he had visited in 1954, were therefore timely. Law saw it as essential that Australia build its second station in this extensive ice free area which promised unique scientific opportunities. Kista Dan was again used to carry the party and materials for a new station, and on 13 January 1957 Law opened Davis, naming it in honour of Captain John King Davis.
The Antarctic work expands
The following season a new Lauritzen vessel, Thala Dan, was brought into service for ANARE. The expedition conducted a coastal survey in Oates Land, in the eastern sector of AAT, completed the annual relief of Davis and Mawson stations, and concluded with a survey westward to Enderby Land. This complemented extensive inland surveys that had been completed by the winter parties. Thus, by the time the IGY commenced, Law had established Australia’s ability to visit most parts of the AAT and to collect data simultaneously from a station in the subantarctic, two permanently occupied continental stations, and an automatic weather station which had been installed on Lewis Island in Wilkes Land.
The conclusion of the IGY saw Australia firmly committed to continuing exploration and research in AAT and in 1958 Law was able to negotiate the transfer to Australian administrative control of Wilkes Station which had been established for the IGY by the United States. Wilkes, on the coast of what is now Law Dome, was permanently placed in Australian custody on 4 February 1959.
The IGY had proved to be a hugely productive scientific experiment and had demonstrated that many nations could amicably work together in the Antarctic. The spirit of cooperation that evolved during IGY prompted proposals that this uniquely successful scheme should be continued. These led ultimately to the signing, by twelve nations, of the Antarctic Treaty in December 1959. Australia’s credibility in Antarctic matters gave it a significant influence in the establishment of the Treaty. When the Treaty was ratified in 1961 Australia had become a leading nation in Antarctic science and exploration.
A commitment to Antarctica
Australia’s reputation in Antarctica had been founded on the initiative and energy of a few dedicated scientists and explorers. Those such as Mawson, Davis, Wilkins, Rymill and Law had the perception of Antarctica’s scientific wealth and the conviction that Australia should pursue it.
The first Australians in Antarctica demonstrated commitment to science and innovation. Mawson was first a scientist and leader, but introduced radio to Antarctica to report weather phenomena. He had the foresight to take an aircraft with him on the Aurora. Wilkins went on to prove the value of aerial survey, Rymill the effectiveness of small parties covering large areas on the ground.
While Mawson’s work led directly to the establishment of Australian Antarctic Territory, it was left to Law to consolidate Australia’s reputation in Antarctica. As a tireless promoter of Australia’s Antarctic interests, he secured substantial and ongoing national commitment to Antarctica.
Law capitalised on the experiences of the pioneers and, with the benefit of better ships and modern technology, under his leadership ANARE achieved in a short time what to the early explorers would have been inconceivable.
Over nineteen years as an Antarctic explorer Law made 28 voyages to Antarctic and subantarctic regions – most of them as leader of the Expedition. His coastal exploration achieved 28 landings at previously unvisited sites, and under his direction over 5000 kilometres of AAT coastline was accurately charted for the first time. Winter parties working inland from the stations extended the total area mapped to more than one million square kilometres. By the time of Law’s retirement from the Antarctic Division in 1966 he had established an indelible record of achievement in Antarctic exploration.
The national Antarctic program now owes a substantial debt to Phillip Law. Our areas of operations in Antarctica and our ways of working there follow the clear lead set by him.
Australia still maintains three stations occupied year-round in the Antarctic and one on subantarctic Macquarie Island. Mawson and Davis occupy the sites originally selected by Law, while Casey station was opened in 1969 to replace Wilkes which became uninhabitable following inundation by snow. ANARE now also mounts summer programs at Commonwealth Bay Base near Mawson’s original hut at Cape Denison in George V Land, Edgeworth David Base in the Bunger Hills, has re-established a base at Atlas Cove on Heard Island, and is establishing field programs at Dovers Base in the Prince Charles Mountains.
In 1987 Law Base, named in honour of Phillip Law, was established in the Larsemann Hills near the site where Law first landed in February 1958.
